A small, circular piece of DNA that is separate from the chromosomal DNA, often found in bacteria and used in genetic engineering
A genetic engineering tool used for precise editing of DNA sequences by using a bacterial defense mechanism
The collection of bacteria, fungi, and viruses, living in a particular environment (e.g., the human gut)
The process by which a cell converts an impulse from outside the cell into a functional response inside the cell
A technique used to separate molecules, such as DNA or proteins, based on their size and charge through a gel matrix
The process by which information is used to produce functional products like proteins
The transfer of material between organisms, bypassing traditional reproduction
The study of evolutionary relationships among organisms, often depicted as a tree
The study of the complete set of single strand RNA molecules produced by the genome under specific circumstances
The addition of a certain kind of group to a molecule, often regulating proteins and signaling pathways
The ability of connections between neurons to strengthen or weaken over time, affecting learning and memory
The study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence
The final stage of cell division, where two daughter cells are formed
The large-scale study of molecules made up of amino acids, including their structure, function, and interactions